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Adaptive Youth Sports Participation

This is an excerpt from Introduction to Adaptive Sport and Recreation by Robin Hardin & Joshua R. Pate.

By Anthony G. Delli Paoli and Javier Robles

Participating in youth sports has positive effects for all children, especially those with disabilities. Despite these benefits, children with disabilities participate at lower rates or do not participate at all compared to their typically developing peers. A range of issues are related to participating in youth sport for youth with disabilities. A challenge to resolving these issues is that they are unlikely to be resolved quickly because of their complexity. They often require many stakeholders (i.e., league directors, coaches, parents, and local and state officials) to cooperate, and that can be particularly difficult when working in youth sport. Thus, these issues may be resolved with attention focused on a limited set of issues rather than an attempt to resolve all issues collectively.

Participation Barriers

Barriers are covered more in depth in chapter 2, but it is worth revisiting a range of barriers that result in low levels of youth sport participation for individuals with disabilities. Becoming aware of these barriers and how to reduce their impact on participation is important for parents, coaches, administrators, and youth sport stakeholders to consider. Barriers include actual (e.g., cost of equipment or availability of transportation) and perceived barriers (e.g., fear of being teased). Both actual and perceived barriers are equally powerful contributors to participation. One way to better understand specific barriers is to categorize them into individual, social, environmental, and policy levels of complexity (see table 11.1).

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Both actual and perceived barriers have equally powerful influence on participation.

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Individual barriers occur within the youth athlete. Actual barriers are a lack of physical skills needed to play the sport and the cost of specialized equipment to make a modification. The cost of specialized equipment can vary depending on several factors, such as the type of sport, the competition level, the location, and the specific needs of the individual. For example, adaptive equipment, such as modified bicycles or wheelchairs, can be costly, with some specialized equipment costing several thousand dollars. The cost is often associated with the customization needed to provide a good fit for each player; for example, runners with amputations may use tailored prosthetics to allow them to compete safely and comfortably. A point worth considering is that some specialized equipment can be adjusted as athletes grow, whereas other equipment needs to be replaced with something new and customized each year. This can be prohibitively expensive for families to maintain.

Other individual barriers may be related to disability itself, thereby limiting participation in sports. For example, movements required to play a particular sport may worsen pain or exacerbate symptoms. Some athletes may avoid sports where there is a risk for pain or existing symptoms of a disability to worsen. These actual physical barriers also occur with perceived barriers regarding a child’s fear of being teased or injured and lack of confidence in their athletic ability compared to teammates. Perceived athletic competence—an individual’s perception of their athletic ability—is one of the strongest psychological predictors of participation and continuation in sport (Balish et al., 2014). Efforts aimed at improving a child’s athletic competence are worthwhile to consider for overcoming perceptual individual barriers to participation.

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Youth with greater sport skills generally make it to more competitive (i.e., travel) teams and are more likely to continue their youth sport participation than youth with lesser sport skills. How might this affect how we understand the influence of perceived athletic competence with sport participation?

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Social barriers exist because of others in proximity to a youth athlete. For instance, parental actions such as not registering a child for sport because of safety concerns, no time for other activities, and a lack of parental support or encouragement are all barriers to participation (Shields et al., 2012). Although most parents recognize the benefits of sport participation for children with disabilities, they recognize the challenges associated with barriers (Columna et al., 2020). Perceptions of not being liked by others, the risk of being teased by teammates, and actual friends not participating in sport are social barriers that exist outside the family. Additional social barriers include a lack of understanding from support staff or coaches about an individual child’s needs and negative perceptions of a disability originating from parents of youth athletes without a disability. This is a particular area of concern for volunteer youth sport coaches. Volunteer youth coaches, who frequently lack any coaching education, face challenges when coaching youth sports, let alone providing specialized guidance for youth athletes with disabilities. Collectively, those within the social perimeter of a youth athlete can influence participation through actual and perceived social barriers.

Environmental barriers exist for playing facilities and the areas within their vicinity such as walkways, streets, and stairs. Two of the most common environmental barriers are accessibility to facilities and inadequate programming. Specific facilities that have the appropriate equipment to host adaptive youth sports are often far away from youth athletes who use those adaptations. This increases travel time to practice and games that can be an additional burden on families. Some parents may decide that adaptive youth sport participation is not worth this travel burden. Adaptive youth sport programming is also often limited in both rural areas and inner cities, where there is a lack of experienced coaches and appropriate facilities (Kleinert et al., 2007). This increases the travel burden for athletes and their families to find adaptive sport programming in other communities.

Policy-level barriers exist at the local level of a sport organization, department, or league. One of the most consequential barriers to participation is a result of league administrators’ fear of liability. Note that chapter 5 covers legal aspects in greater detail. A league administrator may introduce a policy or make case-by-case decisions for youth athletes with disabilities to not participate because of a fear that the athlete will get physically hurt or that using specialized equipment may hurt others. Parents may take legal action against the league, coaches, or administrators in the event of an injury. To avoid this potential scenario, league administrators default to nonparticipation. There are federal laws in the United States that protect against these types of scenarios, and they are covered in chapter 5. Unfortunately, youth sport administrators who have limited experience working with youth with disabilities or who are unaware of these laws can still influence participation.

Participation Facilitators

Despite these barriers, youths with disabilities successfully participate in adaptive youth sport. Addressing these barriers at the individual, social, environmental, and policy levels can encourage more youth with disabilities to participate. In addition to addressing these barriers, strategies to enhance participation can often be facilitators. Many of these facilitative strategies mirror barriers and can enhance participation and enjoyment in adaptive youth sport.

Addressing issues at the individual level includes working with youth athletes to develop their perceived athletic competence. Research shows that youth with higher levels of perceived athletic competence report greater sport satisfaction and enjoyment, experience more emotional well-being outcomes, and are less likely to drop out from youth sport than those with lower levels of perceived athletic competence (Balish et al., 2014; Donaldson and Ronan, 2006; Scarpa and Nart, 2012). It is important to note that the athletic competence of a youth athlete is strongly related to perceived and actual social acceptance (Evans and Roberts, 1987; Ommundsen et al., 2010; Weiss and Duncan, 1992). Youth with disabilities who are motivated to be fit, want to learn new skills, and possess the basic skills for playing the sport are most likely to participate (Shields et al., 2012).

At the social level, families that encourage, support, model, and create opportunities for youth athletes with disabilities are more likely to participate. Beyond the family, peers without disabilities that are involved in parallel sports programs are shown to facilitate participation and in turn help reduce negative attitudes regarding disabilities. Indeed, peers play a meaningful role in developing youth athletes’ sport experience (Smith and Delli Paoli, 2017). Being with friends and being accepted by them are some of the primary reasons youth participate in sport (Weiss and Amorose, 2008). Peers can help encourage participation and effort as well as model skills. These efforts aid in increasing the athletic competence of youth athletes with disabilities and others are more likely to accept it.

These strategies are most effective under the guidance of experienced and well-trained coaches. The significance of having coaches who possess the necessary training and expertise in adaptive sports is critical for engagement and meaningful experiences in adaptive youth sport. Trained coaches can provide specialized guidance, instruction, and support to ensure the inclusion and optimal development of youth athletes with disabilities. Their understanding of the unique needs, adaptations, and strategies specific to various disabilities can greatly enhance the sports experience for these athletes. Trained coaches also can effectively collaborate with administrators, parents, and other stakeholders to implement inclusive practices and foster an environment conducive to the success and well-being of youth athletes with disabilities.

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Being with friends and social acceptance are some of the primary reasons why youth participate in sport.

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Addressing issues at the environmental level to increase adaptive youth sport offerings can be challenging. This is often the experience for those who reside in rural or inner-city communities where there is a lack of adaptive sport programs. Youth sport stakeholders and their parents can work with nearby communities to pool resources and offer additional programming and sport opportunities. National nonprofit organizations also offer regional or nationwide programming, including organizations like BlazeSports, Little League Challenger Division, and Move United. These organizations have tools and strategies for finding local adaptive youth sport leagues and opportunities across the United States. The American Association of Adapted Sports Programs (AAASP) works with local and state school districts to implement adaptive sports programs for students in elementary school all the way through high school. These programs offer accessible options for those looking for adaptive youth sport opportunities and provide education training and certifications for coaching adaptive sport. This may be particularly useful to address the demand for more qualified adaptive youth sport coaches.

Educating administrators and coaches on how best to work with a child may aid in better understanding the needs of the child and what modifications may be necessary for full participation. Considering poor policy decisions by administrators that may exclude youth with disabilities, soliciting parents for information is an important strategy to aid in educating administrators and coaches. Administrators understand what can be modified and how to properly place an individual in adaptive youth sport when they work together with parents. Importantly, such restrictive policies in the United States are illegal. Several laws protect the rights of children and youth with disabilities to participate in adaptive sports. They are covered in chapter 5 and are listed here:

• The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in all areas of public life, including sports programs and activities.
• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in programs and activities that receive federal funding, including schools and sports programs.
• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that children with disabilities have access to free and appropriate public education, including extracurricular activities such as sports.
• Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act prohibits discrimination based on sex in educational programs and activities, including sports programs.
• The Assistive Technology Act provides funding and support for the development and use of assistive technology, including adaptive equipment for sports.
• The Affordable Care Act requires that insurance companies cover the cost of adaptive equipment and rehabilitation services for people with disabilities, which can help with participation in sports.

These laws provide a legal framework to ensure that youth with disabilities have equal access to sports programs and activities and that they are not discriminated against based on their disabilities. However, state laws may protect individuals with disabilities at an equal or greater extent than federal laws. Consult your state laws for specific laws addressing issues of discrimination against people with disabilities.

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Promoting Peer Relationships

Peers can positively influence the sport experience of individuals with disabilities to promote beneficial outcomes. Useful strategies start with giving youth athletes time and space to meaningfully interact with each other. These activities should be peer-led rather than adult-led. This puts youth athletes with disabilities at the center of their sport experience, giving them authority to make decisions. Here are strategies to promote peer relationships in adaptive youth sport:

• Setting aside time for peers to get to know one another outside of sport, such as a shared meal or a team-building exercise that involves cooperative learning
• Emphasizing athletes helping each other and praising effort
• Pairing individual athletes together where each athlete is responsible for teaching each other new skills, such as using the buddy system whereby a more experienced athlete is paired with a less-experienced athlete
• Developing team goals and how each athlete can contribute to each team goal during team meetings
• Providing training on to how to effectively communicate with empathy and understanding, fostering an inclusive and supportive environment
• Encouraging athletes to celebrate achievements so they readily identify and celebrate the accomplishments of all team members, regardless of their abilities
• Creating a culture that encourages positive reinforcement and praise for individual efforts and improvements
• Promoting inclusion through awareness events off the field by organizing community service projects or participation in events that raise awareness about disabilities, allowing athletes to interact with others outside their team and develop a broader peer-support network

Remember, building relationships takes time, so be patient and provide opportunities for youth athletes to develop connections naturally. Encourage open dialogue, empathy, and mutual respect to create an inclusive and supportive environment.

More Excerpts From Introduction to Adaptive Sport and Recreation

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